Direct binding to sterols accelerates endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of HMG CoA reductase.

The maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis is crucial for normal function at both the cellular and organismal levels. Two integral membrane proteins, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) and Scap, are key targets of a complex feedback regulatory system that operates to ensure cholesterol homeostasis. HMGCR catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the transformation of the 2-carbon precursor acetate to 27-carbon cholesterol. Scap mediates proteolytic activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2), a membrane-bound transcription factor that controls expression of genes involved in the synthesis and uptake of cholesterol. Sterol accumulation triggers binding of HMGCR to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized Insig proteins, leading to the enzyme's ubiquitination and proteasome-mediated ER-associated degradation (ERAD). Sterols also induce binding of Insigs to Scap, which leads to sequestration of Scap and its bound SREBP-2 in the ER, thereby preventing proteolytic activation of SREBP-2 in the Golgi. The oxygenated cholesterol derivative 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HC) and the methylated cholesterol synthesis intermediate 24,25-dihydrolanosterol (DHL) differentially modulate HMGCR and Scap. While both sterols promote binding of HMGCR to Insigs for ubiquitination and subsequent ERAD, only 25HC inhibits the Scap-mediated proteolytic activation of SREBP-2. We showed previously that 1,1-bisphosphonate esters mimic DHL, accelerating ERAD of HMGCR while sparing SREBP-2 activation. Building on these results, our current studies reveal specific, Insig-independent photoaffinity labeling of HMGCR by photoactivatable derivatives of the 1,1-bisphosphonate ester SRP-3042 and 25HC. These findings disclose a direct sterol binding mechanism as the trigger that initiates the HMGCR ERAD pathway, providing valuable insights into the intricate mechanisms that govern cholesterol homeostasis.

Post-Translational Regulation of HMG CoA Reductase.

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized integral membrane protein that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of cholesterol and many nonsterol isoprenoids including geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp). HMGCR is subjected to strict feedback control through multiple mechanisms to ensure cells constantly produce essential nonsterol isoprenoids, but do not overaccumulate cholesterol. Here, we focus on the mechanism of feedback control of HMGCR that involves its sterol-induced ubiquitination and ER-associated degradation (ERAD) that is augmented by GGpp. We will also discuss the how GGpp-regulated intracellular trafficking of the vitamin K2 synthetic enzyme UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) inhibits HMGCR ERAD to balance the synthesis of sterol and nonsterol isoprenoids. Finally, we will summarize various mouse models, the characterization of which establish that sterol-accelerated, UBIAD1-modulated ERAD plays a major role in regulation of HMGCR and cholesterol metabolism in vivo.

Regulated degradation of HMG CoA reductase requires conformational changes in sterol-sensing domain.

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) is the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis and target of cholesterol-lowering statin drugs. Accumulation of sterols in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes accelerates degradation of HMGCR, slowing the synthesis of cholesterol. Degradation of HMGCR is inhibited by its binding to UBIAD1 (UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1). This inhibition contributes to statin-induced accumulation of HMGCR, which limits their cholesterol-lowering effects. Here, we report cryo-electron microscopy structures of the HMGCR-UBIAD1 complex, which is maintained by interactions between transmembrane helix (TM) 7 of HMGCR and TMs 2-4 of UBIAD1. Disrupting this interface by mutagenesis prevents complex formation, enhancing HMGCR degradation. TMs 2-6 of HMGCR contain a 170-amino acid sterol sensing domain (SSD), which exists in two conformations-one of which is essential for degradation. Thus, our data supports a model that rearrangement of the TMs in the SSD permits recruitment of proteins that initate HMGCR degradation, a key reaction in the regulatory system that governs cholesterol synthesis.

Multiple Dietary Vitamin K Forms Are Converted to Tissue Menaquinone-4 in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin K is a term that comprises a family of structurally related quinones, phylloquinone (PK) and the menaquinones (MKn), that share a common naphthoquinone ring but vary in sidechain length (n) and saturation. Dietary PK is a biosynthetic precursor to tissue menaquinone-4 (MK4), but little is known about the absorption and metabolism of dietary MKn. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the absorption and metabolism of dietary MKn relative to PK. METHODS: In the 4-week diet study, 10-week-old male and female C57BL/6 mice were pair-fed a vitamin K deficient diet (control) or a diet supplemented with 5.0 µmol/kg total PK, MK4, and/or MK9 (separately and in combination). In the 1-week stable isotope study, 12-week-old mice were pair-fed diets containing 2.2 µmol/kg PK (unlabeled control), 2H7PK, 13C11MK4, 2H7MK7, or 2H7MK9. Vitamin K tissue content was quantified by HPLC and/or LC-MS, and concentrations were compared by sex and diet group using 2-factor ANOVA. RESULTS: Regardless of the form(s) of vitamin K provided in the diet, tissue MK4 concentrations did not differ across equimolar supplemented groups in the kidney, adipose, reproductive organ, bone, or pancreas in either males or females in the diet study (all P values > 0.05). Isotopic labeling confirmed the naphthoquinone ring of MK4 in tissues originated from the administered dietary PK or MKn. Despite equimolar supplementation, accumulation of the administered dietary form differed across diet groups in small intestinal segments (all P values < 0.002) and the liver (P < 0.001). Female mice had greater total vitamin K than males in every tissue examined (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dietary PK, MK4, MK7, and MK9 all served as precursors to tissue MK4 in mice. This study expands our understanding of vitamin K metabolism and supports a common conversion mechanism of all dietary vitamin K forms to MK4. Further investigation of the metabolism and physiological roles of MK4 that may be independent of classical vitamin K function is warranted.

Type 1 polyisoprenoid diphosphate phosphatase modulates geranylgeranyl-mediated control of HMG CoA reductase and UBIAD1.

UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) utilizes geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) to synthesize the vitamin K2 subtype menaquinone-4. The prenyltransferase has emerged as a key regulator of sterol-accelerated, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) of HMG CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in synthesis of cholesterol and nonsterol isoprenoids including GGpp. Sterols induce binding of UBIAD1 to reductase, inhibiting its ERAD. Geranylgeraniol (GGOH), the alcohol derivative of GGpp, disrupts this binding and thereby stimulates ERAD of reductase and translocation of UBIAD1 to Golgi. We now show that overexpression of Type 1 polyisoprenoid diphosphate phosphatase (PDP1), which dephosphorylates GGpp and other isoprenyl pyrophosphates to corresponding isoprenols, abolishes protein geranylgeranylation as well as GGOH-induced ERAD of reductase and Golgi transport of UBIAD1. Conversely, these reactions are enhanced in the absence of PDP1. Our findings indicate PDP1-mediated hydrolysis of GGpp significantly contributes to a feedback mechanism that maintains optimal intracellular levels of the nonsterol isoprenoid.

Structures of dimeric human NPC1L1 provide insight into mechanisms for cholesterol absorption.

Polytopic Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) plays a major role in intestinal absorption of biliary cholesterol, vitamin E (VE), and vitamin K (VK). The drug ezetimibe inhibits NPC1L1-mediated absorption of cholesterol, lowering of circulating levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Here, we report cryo-electron microscopy structures of human NPC1L1 (hNPC1L1) bound to either cholesterol or a lipid resembling VE. These findings, together with functional assays, reveal that the same intramolecular channel in hNPC1L1 mediates transport of VE and cholesterol. hNPC1L1 exists primarily as a homodimer; dimerization is mediated by aromatic residues within a region of transmembrane helix 2 that exhibits a horizonal orientation in the membrane. Mutation of tryptophan-347 lies in this region disrupts dimerization and the resultant monomeric NPC1L1 exhibits reduced efficiency of cholesterol uptake. These findings identify the oligomeric state of hNPC1L1 as a target for therapies that inhibit uptake of dietary cholesterol and reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Posttranslational Regulation of HMG CoA Reductase, the Rate-Limiting Enzyme in Synthesis of Cholesterol.

The polytopic, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase produces mevalonate, the key intermediate in the synthesis of cholesterol and many nonsterol isoprenoids including geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp). Transcriptional, translational, and posttranslational feedback mechanisms converge on this reductase to ensure cells maintain a sufficient supply of essential nonsterol isoprenoids but avoid overaccumulation of cholesterol and other sterols. The focus of this review is mechanisms for the posttranslational regulation of HMG CoA reductase, which include sterol-accelerated ubiquitination and ER-associated degradation (ERAD) that is augmented by GGpp. We discuss how GGpp-induced ER-to-Golgi trafficking of the vitamin K2 synthetic enzyme UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) modulates HMG CoA reductase ERAD to balance the synthesis of sterol and nonsterol isoprenoids. We also summarize the characterization of genetically manipulated mice, which established that sterol-accelerated, UBIAD1-modulated ERAD plays a major role in regulation of HMG CoA reductase and cholesterol metabolism in vivo.

Enhanced ER-associated degradation of HMG CoA reductase causes embryonic lethality associated with Ubiad1 deficiency.

UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) synthesizes the vitamin K subtype menaquinone-4 (MK-4). Previous studies in cultured cells (Schumacher et al., 2015) revealed that UBIAD1 also inhibits endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) of ubiquitinated HMG CoA reductase (HMGCR), the rate-limiting enzyme of the mevalonate pathway that produces cholesterol and essential nonsterol isoprenoids. Gene knockout studies were previously attempted to explore the function of UBIAD1 in mice; however, homozygous germ-line elimination of the Ubiad1 gene caused embryonic lethality. We now report that homozygous deletion of Ubiad1 is produced in knockin mice expressing ubiquitination/ERAD-resistant HMGCR. Thus, embryonic lethality of Ubiad1 deficiency results from depletion of mevalonate-derived products owing to enhanced ERAD of HMGCR rather than from reduced synthesis of MK-4. These findings provide genetic evidence for the significance of UBIAD1 in regulation of cholesterol synthesis and offer the opportunity in future studies for the discovery of new physiological roles of MK-4.

Schnyder corneal dystrophy-associated UBIAD1 is defective in MK-4 synthesis and resists autophagy-mediated degradation.

The autosomal dominant disorder Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD) is caused by mutations in UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1), which uses geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) to synthesize the vitamin K2 subtype menaquinone-4 (MK-4). SCD is characterized by opacification of the cornea, owing to aberrant build-up of cholesterol in the tissue. We previously discovered that sterols stimulate association of UBIAD1 with ER-localized HMG-CoA reductase, which catalyzes a rate-limiting step in the synthesis of cholesterol and nonsterol isoprenoids, including GGpp. Binding to UBIAD1 inhibits sterol-accelerated ER-associated degradation (ERAD) of reductase and permits continued synthesis of GGpp in cholesterol-replete cells. GGpp disrupts UBIAD1-reductase binding and thereby allows for maximal ERAD of reductase as well as ER-to-Golgi translocation of UBIAD1. SCD-associated UBIAD1 is refractory to GGpp-mediated dissociation from reductase and remains sequestered in the ER to inhibit ERAD. Here, we report development of a biochemical assay for UBIAD1-mediated synthesis of MK-4 in isolated membranes and intact cells. Using this assay, we compared enzymatic activity of WT UBIAD1 with that of SCD-associated variants. Our studies revealed that SCD-associated UBIAD1 exhibited reduced MK-4 synthetic activity, which may result from its reduced affinity for GGpp. Sequestration in the ER protects SCD-associated UBIAD1 from autophagy and allows intracellular accumulation of the mutant protein, which amplifies the inhibitory effect on reductase ERAD. These findings have important implications not only for the understanding of SCD etiology but also for the efficacy of cholesterol-lowering statin therapy, which becomes limited, in part, because of UBIAD1-mediated inhibition of reductase ERAD.

Schnyder corneal dystrophy-associated UBIAD1 inhibits ER-associated degradation of HMG CoA reductase in mice.

Autosomal-dominant Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD) is characterized by corneal opacification owing to overaccumulation of cholesterol. SCD is caused by mutations in UBIAD1, which utilizes geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) to synthesize vitamin K2. Using cultured cells, we previously showed that sterols trigger binding of UBIAD1 to the cholesterol biosynthetic enzyme HMG CoA reductase (HMGCR), thereby inhibiting its endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) (Schumacher et al. 2015). GGpp triggers release of UBIAD1 from HMGCR, allowing maximal ERAD and ER-to-Golgi transport of UBIAD1. SCD-associated UBIAD1 resists GGpp-induced release and is sequestered in ER to inhibit ERAD. We now report knockin mice expressing SCD-associated UBIAD1 accumulate HMGCR in several tissues resulting from ER sequestration of mutant UBIAD1 and inhibition of HMGCR ERAD. Corneas from aged knockin mice exhibit signs of opacification and sterol overaccumulation. These results establish the physiological significance of UBIAD1 in cholesterol homeostasis and indicate inhibition of HMGCR ERAD contributes to SCD pathogenesis.

SREBPs in Lipid Metabolism, Insulin Signaling, and Beyond.

Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) are a family of membrane-bound transcription factors that activate genes encoding enzymes required for synthesis of cholesterol and unsaturated fatty acids. SREBPs are controlled by multiple mechanisms at the level of mRNA synthesis, proteolytic activation, and transcriptional activity. In this review, we summarize the recent findings that contribute to the current understanding of the regulation of SREBPs and their physiologic roles in maintenance of lipid homeostasis, insulin signaling, innate immunity, and cancer development.

Underlying mechanisms for sterol-induced ubiquitination and ER-associated degradation of HMG CoA reductase.

Accelerated ubiquitination and subsequent endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) constitute one of several mechanisms for feedback control of HMG CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in synthesis of cholesterol and nonsterol isoprenoids. This ERAD is initiated by the accumulation of certain sterols in ER membranes, which trigger binding of reductase to ER membrane proteins called Insigs. Insig-associated ubiquitin ligases facilitate ubiquitination of reductase, marking the enzyme for extraction across the ER membrane through a reaction that is augmented by nonsterol isoprenoids. Once extracted, ubiquitinated reductase becomes dislocated into the cytosol for degradation by 26S proteasomes. In this review, we will highlight several advances in the understanding of reductase ERAD, which includes the discovery for a role of the vitamin K2 synthetic enzyme UBIAD1 in the reaction and demonstration that sterol-accelerated ERAD significantly contributes to feedback regulation of reductase and cholesterol metabolism in livers of whole animals.

UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 modulates HMG-CoA reductase degradation to coordinate synthesis of sterol and nonsterol isoprenoids.

UBIAD1 (UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1) utilizes geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) to synthesize vitamin K2 We previously reported that sterols stimulate binding of UBIAD1 to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase. UBIAD1 binding inhibits sterol-accelerated, ER-associated degradation (ERAD) of reductase, one of several mechanisms for feedback control of this rate-limiting enzyme in the branched pathway that produces cholesterol and nonsterol isoprenoids such as GGpp. Accumulation of GGpp in ER membranes triggers release of UBIAD1 from reductase, permitting its maximal ERAD and ER-to-Golgi transport of UBIAD1. Mutant UBIAD1 variants associated with Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD), a human disorder characterized by corneal accumulation of cholesterol, resist GGpp-induced release from reductase and remain sequestered in the ER to block reductase ERAD. Using lines of genetically manipulated cells, we now examine consequences of UBIAD1 deficiency and SCD-associated UBIAD1 on reductase ERAD and cholesterol synthesis. Our results indicated that reductase becomes destabilized in the absence of UBIAD1, resulting in reduced cholesterol synthesis and intracellular accumulation. In contrast, an SCD-associated UBIAD1 variant inhibited reductase ERAD, thereby stabilizing the enzyme and contributing to enhanced synthesis and intracellular accumulation of cholesterol. Finally, we present evidence that GGpp-regulated, ER-to-Golgi transport enables UBIAD1 to modulate reductase ERAD such that synthesis of nonsterol isoprenoids is maintained in sterol-replete cells. These findings further establish UBIAD1 as a central player in the reductase ERAD pathway and regulation of isoprenoid synthesis. They also indicate that UBIAD1-mediated inhibition of reductase ERAD underlies cholesterol accumulation associated with SCD.

Synergistic Impact of d-δ-Tocotrienol and Geranylgeraniol on the Growth and HMG CoA Reductase of Human DU145 Prostate Carcinoma Cells.

The growth-suppressive effect of d-δ-tocotrienol and geranylgeraniol is at least partially attributed to their impact on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the mevalonate pathway that provides essential intermediates for the posttranslational modification of growth-related proteins including RAS. We hypothesize that these agents synergistically impact cell growth based on their complementary mechanisms of action with HMG CoA reductase. d-δ-tocotrienol (0-40 µmol/L; half maximal inhibitory concentration [IC50] = 15 µmol/L) and geranylgeraniol (0-100 µmol/L; IC50 = 60 µmol/L) each induced concentration-dependent suppression of the growth of human DU145 prostate carcinoma cells. Blends of the two agents synergistically suppressed the growth of DU145 cells, with combination index values ranging 0.67-0.75. While 7.5 µmol/L d-δ-tocotrienol and 30 µmol/L geranylgeraniol individually had no impact on cell cycle distribution in DU145 cells, a blend of the agents induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase. The synergistic downregulation of the expression of HMG CoA reductase by 7.5 µmol/L d-δ-tocotrienol and 30 µmol/L geranylgeraniol was accompanied by a reduction in membrane K-RAS protein. Our finding supports the cancer chemopreventive action of plant-based diets and their isoprenoid constituents. Properly formulated isoprenoids and derivatives may provide novel approaches in prostate cancer prevention and therapy.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α activates insulin-induced gene 2 (Insig-2) transcription for degradation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase in the liver.

Cholesterol synthesis is a highly oxygen-consuming process. As such, oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) limits cholesterol synthesis through incompletely understood mechanisms mediated by the oxygen-sensitive transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α). We show here that HIF-1α links pathways for oxygen sensing and feedback control of cholesterol synthesis in human fibroblasts by directly activating transcription of the INSIG-2 gene. Insig-2 is one of two endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins that inhibit cholesterol synthesis by mediating sterol-induced ubiquitination and subsequent endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of the rate-limiting enzyme in the pathway, HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR). Consistent with the results in cultured cells, hepatic levels of Insig-2 mRNA were enhanced in mouse models of hypoxia. Moreover, pharmacologic stabilization of HIF-1α in the liver stimulated HMGCR degradation via a reaction that requires the protein's prior ubiquitination and the presence of the Insig-2 protein. In summary, our results show that HIF-1α activates INSIG-2 transcription, leading to accumulation of Insig-2 protein, which binds to HMGCR and triggers its accelerated ubiquitination and degradation. These results indicate that HIF-mediated induction of Insig-2 and degradation of HMGCR are physiologically relevant events that guard against wasteful oxygen consumption and inappropriate cell growth during hypoxia.

Membrane Extraction of HMG CoA Reductase as Determined by Susceptibility of Lumenal Epitope to In Vitro Protease Digestion.

Although many aspects of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway have been elucidated, methods to detect and examine intermediate steps in the process are lacking. Here, we describe the use of a protease protection assay to study the metabolically regulated ERAD substrate HMG CoA reductase. Studies utilizing this assay reveal that ubiquitinated reductase becomes extracted across the ER membrane prior to its cytosolic release and proteasomal degradation through reactions mediated by distinct AAA-ATPases. A similar approach could be applied to other substrates to determine whether membrane extraction is an intermediate step in their ERAD.

Contribution of Accelerated Degradation to Feedback Regulation of 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase and Cholesterol Metabolism in the Liver.

Accumulation of sterols in endoplasmic reticulum membranes stimulates the ubiquitination of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), which catalyzes a rate-limiting step in synthesis of cholesterol. This ubiquitination marks HMGCR for proteasome-mediated degradation and constitutes one of several mechanisms for feedback control of cholesterol synthesis. Mechanisms for sterol-accelerated ubiquitination and degradation of HMGCR have been elucidated through the study of cultured mammalian cells. However, the extent to which these reactions modulate HMGCR and contribute to control of cholesterol metabolism in whole animals is unknown. Here, we examine transgenic mice expressing in the liver the membrane domain of HMGCR (HMGCR (TM1-8)), a region necessary and sufficient for sterol-accelerated degradation, and knock-in mice in which endogenous HMGCR harbors mutations that prevent sterol-induced ubiquitination. Characterization of transgenic mice revealed that HMGCR (TM1-8) is appropriately regulated in the liver of mice fed a high cholesterol diet or chow diet supplemented with the HMGCR inhibitor lovastatin. Ubiquitination-resistant HMGCR protein accumulates in the liver and other tissues disproportionately to its mRNA, indicating that sterol-accelerated degradation significantly contributes to feedback regulation of HMGCR in vivo Results of these studies demonstrate that HMGCR is subjected to sterol-accelerated degradation in the liver through mechanisms similar to those established in cultured cells. Moreover, these studies designate sterol-accelerated degradation of HMGCR as a potential therapeutic target for prevention of atherosclerosis and associated cardiovascular disease.

Geranylgeranyl-regulated transport of the prenyltransferase UBIAD1 between membranes of the ER and Golgi.

UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) utilizes geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) to synthesize the vitamin K2 subtype menaquinone-4. Previously, we found that sterols trigger binding of UBIAD1 to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in synthesis of cholesterol and nonsterol isoprenoids, including GGpp. This binding inhibits sterol-accelerated degradation of reductase, which contributes to feedback regulation of the enzyme. The addition to cells of geranylgeraniol (GGOH), which can become converted to GGpp, triggers release of UBIAD1 from reductase, allowing for its maximal degradation and permitting ER-to-Golgi transport of UBIAD1. Here, we further characterize geranylgeranyl-regulated transport of UBIAD1. Results of this characterization support a model in which UBIAD1 continuously cycles between the ER and medial-trans Golgi of isoprenoid-replete cells. Upon sensing a decline of GGpp in ER membranes, UBIAD1 becomes trapped in the organelle where it inhibits reductase degradation. Mutant forms of UBIAD1 associated with Schnyder corneal dystrophy (SCD), a human eye disease characterized by corneal accumulation of cholesterol, are sequestered in the ER and block reductase degradation. Collectively, these findings disclose a novel sensing mechanism that allows for stringent metabolic control of intracellular trafficking of UBIAD1, which directly modulates reductase degradation and becomes disrupted in SCD.

Transcription Factor Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor-1ß Regulates Renal Cholesterol Metabolism.

HNF-1ß is a tissue-specific transcription factor that is expressed in the kidney and other epithelial organs. Humans with mutations in HNF-1ß develop kidney cysts, and HNF-1ß regulates the transcription of several cystic disease genes. However, the complete spectrum of HNF-1ß-regulated genes and pathways is not known. Here, using chromatin immunoprecipitation/next generation sequencing and gene expression profiling, we identified 1545 protein-coding genes that are directly regulated by HNF-1ß in murine kidney epithelial cells. Pathway analysis predicted that HNF-1ß regulates cholesterol metabolism. Expression of dominant negative mutant HNF-1ß or kidney-specific inactivation of HNF-1ß decreased the expression of genes that are essential for cholesterol synthesis, including sterol regulatory element binding factor 2 (Srebf2) and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (Hmgcr). HNF-1ß mutant cells also expressed lower levels of cholesterol biosynthetic intermediates and had a lower rate of cholesterol synthesis than control cells. Additionally, depletion of cholesterol in the culture medium mitigated the inhibitory effects of mutant HNF-1ß on the proteins encoded by Srebf2 and Hmgcr, and HNF-1ß directly controlled the renal epithelial expression of proprotein convertase subtilisin-like kexin type 9, a key regulator of cholesterol uptake. These findings reveal a novel role of HNF-1ß in a transcriptional network that regulates intrarenal cholesterol metabolism.